The central Sudan was the hub of an elaborate system of trails that linked the emporiums of North Africa and the Sahara with the whole of the Sudan from the Niger to the Nile. The steady stream of caravans that made the perilous desert crossing is the subject of this selection. It comes from an unpublished study by Dr. Samir Zoghby, assistant director of the African Section, the Library of Congress.

The history of commerce is strewn with trails with exotic connotations. The Silk Road, the Spice Road, the Gold Road, and the Salt Road have always intrigued our imagination, goaded by such romantic figures as Marco Polo and Vasco da Gama and, in Islam, the Maqarri brothers and Ibn Battuta.

There were basically four types of caravans in the trans-Saharan trade: military, religious, small commercial, and large commercial. The military was essentially of the ghazw ( raiding) type, which was also considered as a commercial enterprise and was as thoroughly prepared. The religious caravan was mainly composed of pilgrims on their way to Mecca or sometimes to the tomb of a venerated marabous [or holy man]. The small commercial caravans consisted usually of five to one hundred camels, while the large annual ones had from five hundred to two thousand camels. The smaller the caravan, the greater the speed. [A Adul ]Boahen states that: - ... the average rate was fifteen to sixteen miles [per eight hour day] for a heavily laden caravan, seventeen to eighteen for a moderately laden, and twenty to twenty- two a day of ten hours for a lightly laden caravan. As a rule the caravans left the Barbary states between September and October, and departed from the Sudan at the commencement of the rain season in April or May. Barring accident and undue delays, the journey lasted from seventy to ninety days depending on the size of the caravan and the weigh of each camel load."

The commercial caravans and especially the large commercial ones were very elaborate endeavors. Careful arrangements were made, associations were formed for the trip, and some traders delegated their representatives who traditionally kept one third of the benefit. Sometimes the large caravans were made up of smaller caravans traveling together for safety.

Though the trans-Saharan trade did not have to wait for the camel, it was the latter that made the intensive contacts between the two shores of the Sahara possible. There were usually two types of camel in the caravan. One was the white or greyish mehari which is built for speed, with its elegant frame; and the burden camel for carrying goods, which was brown and stocky. Great care was taken to select camel drivers who loaded and unloaded the beasts, as a wounded or ill-loaded camel could delay and even endanger the caravan.

Four factors have been the cause of most deaths during those tremendous trips. The variations; in temperature high as 100° F. by day to as low as 20° F. at night-claimed many victims. Sandstorms were reported to have buried entire caravans in oblivion, such as the army sent by Al-Mansur to invade the Songhai before the commando raid of Juder (1591). Thirst, however, has been pictured as the most horrible danger in the desert. Since the ratio of a gallon of water a day per man is the minimum safe allowance, water was a vital necessity. The problem was tackled from two angles. Springs were kept in good order and protected by the"Pinkertons" of the desert and ample water supplies were carried along. Goatskins were filled with water, but as Al-Yaqut reported, sandstorms usually dried up the goatskins, so the merchants resorted to killing camels, specially the ones who had just quenched their thirst, and drinking the somewhat greenish water found in their stomachs.

A different type of Saharan danger was the threat of nomadic robbers. To counter this threat, the merchants selected their guides and camel drivers from the areas crossed. They also concluded agreements with the leaders of the predominant tribes for safe-conduct. The nomads, who realized the importance of the trails, requested seasonable "ransoms," fearing to scare away the customers. At Ghadames, each commercial concern had its special protector and catered to his needs.

The livelihood of these tribes hinged on the power of the two foci of power both north and south of the Sahara. When the Maghreb states were strong, they were able to control the nomads by closing the passes leading to the Tell. Similarly, when the Sudanic empires were powerful, they contained and controlled the nomads and even occupied their strongholds when they upset the trade routes, such as when Ghana occupied Awdaghast in 990.

The desert routes were controlled by the Tuareg. The western Sahara, from Sijilmasa to Ghana, was the preserve of the Bani Masufa, while the central Sahara between Tuat and the Ahaggar Mountains was controlled by the Ahaggar Tuareg, and the Ajjer Tuareg controlled the trails north of Ghat....

Another trail which became important later on, specially after the collapse of Awdaghast [1055], was the route Sijilmasa- Taghaza- Ghana. The stop at Taghaza allowed the traders to load salt slabs to be sold in the Sudan. Farther east, the Fezzan -Kawar trail was less heavily used, but still reflected a pale shadow of its old frame as the Garamandin Road, the more so since it was the easiest and shortest route from the Mediterranean into Central Africa. The trail Darb alArbi' in linking Kanem with Asyut in Egypt was discontinued, according to Ibn Hawqal during the tenth century due to sandstorms and raiders, and the route Cairo-Tunis-Fez-Sijilmasa was adopted.

Once the caravans reached the southern termini the camels were unloaded, and the goods to the south followed two paths: they were either shipped by canoes down the Niger, whenever possible, or loaded on asses and bullocks, as the camels could not resist the tsetse fly. Once the forest was reached, the goods were once more unloaded and carried by headload to their destination in the forest area.

SEARCHING FOR THE SOURCE

In 1447, while staying at the oases of Tuat (which he had reached from Hono, or Honien on the coast), an Italian named Antonio Malfanse wrote this informative letter to a friend in Genoa. Malfante, who was evidently employed as an agent for one of the Italian banking corporations of the day, had ventured into the Sahara primarily to find the source of the gold that war pouring into Europe form the western Sudan. However, neither he nor any other outsiders - until the nineteenth century- would discover the precise location of the mines from which the Sudan kingdoms obtained their gold. The letter, originally written in Latin, provides an engaging account of life in the oases and in the "Land of the Blacks" farther south.

After we had come from the sea, that is from Hono, we journeyed on horseback, always southwards, for about twelve days. For seven days we encountered no dwelling-nothing but sandy plains; we proceeded as though at sea, guided by the sun during the day, at night by the stars. At the end of the seventh day, we arrived at a Ksour [a village], where dwelt very poor people who supported themselves on water and a little sandy ground. They sow little, living upon the numerous date palms. At this ksour we had come into Tueto [the Tuat oases]. In this place there are eighteen quarters, enclosed within one wall, and ruled by an oligarchy. Each ruler of a quarter protects his followers, whether they be in the right or no. The quarters closely adjoin each other and are jealous of their privileges. Everyone arriving here places himself under the protection of one of these rulers, who will protect him to the death: thus merchants enjoy very great security, much greater, in my opinion, than in kingdoms such as Themmicenno [Tlemcen] and Thunisie [Tunis].

Though I am a Christian, no one ever addressed an insulting word to me. They said they had never seen a Christian before. It is true that on my first arrival they were scornful of me, because they ill wished to see me, saying with wonder "This Christian has a countenance like ours"-for they believed that Christians had disguised faces. Their curiosity was soon satisfied, and now I can go alone anywhere, with no one to say an evil word to me.

There are many Jews who lead a good life here, for they are under the protection of the several rulers, each of whom defends his own clients. Thus they enjoy very secure social standing. Trade is in their hands, and many of them were to be trusted with the greatest confidence.

This locality is a mart of the country of the Moors, to which merchants come to sell their goods: gold is carried hither, and bought by those who come up from the coast. This place is De Amamento [Tamentit], and there are many rich men here. The generality, however, are very poor, for they do not sow, nor do they harvest anything, save the dates upon which they subsist. They eat no meat but that of castrated camels, which are scarce and very dear.

It is true that the Arabs with whom I came from the coast brought with them corn and barley which they sell throughout the year ....

It never rains here: if it did, the houses, being built of salt in the place of reeds, would be destroyed. It is scarcely ever cold here: in summer the heat is extreme, wherefore they are almost all blacks. The children of both sexes go naked up to the age of fifteen. These people observe the religion and law of Muhammad. In the vicinity there are 150 to 200 ksour.

In the lands of the blacks, as well as here, dwell the Philistines [the Tuareg], who live, like the Arabs, in tents. They are without number, and hold sway over the land of Gazola [the Sahara from the borders of Egypt to the shores of the Ocean... ... and over all the neighboring towns of the blacks. They are fair, strong in body and very handsome in appearance. They ride without stirrups, with simple spurs. They are governed by kings, whose heirs are the sons of their sisters-for such is their law. They keep their mouths and noses covered. I have seen many of them here, and have asked them through an interpreter why they cover their mouths and noses thus. They replied: "We have inherited this custom from our ancestors." They are sworn enemies of the Jews, who do not dare to pass hither. Their faith is that of the Blacks. Their sustenance is milk and flesh, no corn or barley, but much rice. Their sheep, cattle, and camels are without number. One breed of camel, white as snow, can cover in one day a distance which would take a horseman four days travel. Great warriors, these people continually are at war amongst themselves

Of such were the stories which I heard daily in plenty. The wares for which there is a demand here are many: but the principal articles are copper, and salt in slabs, bars, and cakes. The copper of Romania [the Byzantine empire], which is obtained through Alexandria, is always in great demand throughout the land of the Blacks. I frequently inquired what they did with it, but no one could give me a definite answer. I believe it is that there are so many peoples that there is almost nothing but that is of use to them.

The Egyptian merchants come to trade in the land of the Blacks with half a million head of cattle and camels-a figure which is not fantastic in this region.

The place where I am is good for trade, as the Egyptians and other merchants come hither from the land of the Blacks bringing gold, which they exchange for copper and other goods. Thus everything sells well; until there is nothing left for sale. The people here will neither sell nor buy unless at a profit of one hundred per cent. For this reason, I have lost, Laus Deo', on the goods I brought here, two thousand doubles.

I often inquired where the gold was found and collected; my patron always replied "I was fourteen years in the land of the Blacks, and I have never heard nor seen anyone who could reply from definite knowledge. That is my experience, as to how it is found and collected. What appears plain is that it comes from a distant land, and, as I believe, from a definite zone." He also said that he had been in places where silver was as valuable as gold.

This land is twenty-eight days' journey from Cambacies [probably Ghadames], and is the city with the best market. It is twenty-five days from Tunis, from Tripoli in Barbary twenty days, from Trimicen [Tlemcen] thirty days, from Fecia [Fez] twenty days, from Zaffi, Zamor and Messa twenty days on horseback. I finish for the present; elsewhere and at another time, God willing, I will recount much more to you orally. I am always at your orders in Christ.