Activity 6, The Press and the Military
Background
Some historians have argued that World War II was a consequence and a continuation of World War I. Clearly, the Versailles Peace Treaty contributed to the conditions in Europe which led to World War II.
During World War I, revolution racked Russia in 1917 and eventually emerged the totalitarian Marxist regime of the Soviet Union. Among the first steps of the leaders of the Soviet Union was to gain control over the press and film industries. The Soviet leaders then used these as propaganda tools to generate support for their policies. They also attempted to influence the public opinion of citizens in other nations through propaganda techniques.
Italy joined the Allied nations during World War I in hopes of acquiring territory at the expense of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the war, tension mounted in Italy as citizens compared the costs of the war with the minimal territorial gains awarded to Italy by the Versailles Treaty. This tension contributed to the rise of the fascists led by Benito Mussolini.
In defeated Germany, the Versailles Treaty contributed to the rise of the fascists led by Adolf Hitler. The Nazi party excelled in propaganda. When it acquired power in 1933, it systematically destroyed the independent press and filled the press with propaganda. These propaganda techniques were clearly spelled out in Hitler's book, Mein Kampf and in Josef Goebbels' writings. These principles were: 1) emotionalism, including the use of pageantry and spectacle; 2) extreme flexibility, including the use of contradictory appeals to different audiences; and 3) pragmatic expediency focusing upon the particular needs of the Nazi Party.
Propagandists in totalitarian countries took advantage of two technological innovations that developed after World War I: radio and the film-making industry. While several experiments in radio broadcast were carried out during the second decade of the twentieth century, the birth of commercial radio is usually traced to Pittsburgh's station KDKA, which began broadcasting in 1920. Radio quickly spread throughout the United States and many other countries. By the 1930's radio transmissions were received by the majority of Americans and Europeans. The stunning power of radio was demonstrated on the eve of Halloween in 1938 when Orson Wells broadcast H. G. Wells' "War of the Worlds." Panic struck many Americans who listened to the "news" broadcast. Many actually believed that Martians had landed in New Jersey and much of the East Coast had been destroyed.
Motion pictures had been around since the late nineteenth century and had filmed events in the Spanish-American War and World War I. This medium rapidly expanded after the war. During the 1920's, weekly attendance at movie theaters averaged 46 million Americans; by 1930 it averaged 90 million. A similar increase occurred in Europe. The major reason for this increase was the introduction of "talking pictures" in 1927.
After Hitler's assent to power in 1933, Germany violated the provisions of the Versailles Treaty
and occupied demilitarized areas adjacent to France. Germany and Italy formed an alliance, and
Germany invaded Austria. France and Great Britain allied and promised to help Czechoslovakia.
After attempts at appeasement, Germany invaded Czechoslovakia. Britain and France extended
assurances to Poland. Germany and Italy allied themselves with Japan and sought a treaty with the
Soviet Union. In August 1939, Germany signed a Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union. It
included secret protocols on the division of Poland and the Baltic nations and established spheres
of influence in other areas of Eastern and Central Europe.
War Erupts
Within a week of the signing of the treaty with the Soviet Union, German troops invaded Poland in September 1939. Europe again found itself at war. During the spring of 1940, Germany quickly conquered Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and France. During the spring of 1941, Germany and Italy occupied Yugoslavia and Greece. In June 1941, Germany turned on its ally, the Soviet Union. America did not enter the war until Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941. The phrase "Remember Pearl Harbor" was used frequently as a slogan to gain support for the war effort.
Perhaps because of the criticism by the press of the restrictions during World War I, the restrictions upon the press were less severe during World War II. The first restrictions were placed in effect a year before Pearl Harbor was attacked. These voluntary controls requested that newspapers not publish any information about troop movements or ship construction. Prior to the American entry into World War II, the Army and Navy established censorship plans in case of war. On December 7, 1941, the FBI assumed temporary control of news censorship and telecommunications traffic into or out of the United States. On December 18, Congress passed the War Powers Act which created an Office of Censorship. The office established guidelines called the Code of Wartime Practices for the American Press, providing for the voluntary censorship of the news related to troops, planes, ships, war production, armaments, military installations, and weather. As in previous conflicts, military commanders in different theaters further restricted the press. Also prohibited were photographs of American casualties. In addition there was the new problem of how to control radio broadcasts.
In general, censorship during World War II was well-organized and fairly consistent. General Dwight D. Eisenhower, in the regulations for war correspondents in Europe stated, "With regard to publicity, the first essential in military operations is that no information of value shall be given to the enemy. The first essential in newspaper work and broadcasting is wide-open publicity. It is your job and mine to try to reconcile these sometimes diverse considerations." There were 461 reporters and photographers (180 of them Americans) accredited to cover the Normandy invasion, and only 27 journalists actually went ashore with invading troops.
There were problems with censorship. British censorship in Egypt and Burma, and Chinese censorship in Chungking was severely criticized. Many reporters covering Douglas MacArthur, the American General in the Pacific Theater, complained that MacArthur's information officers insisted on his personal glorification. Reporters in general gave the military high marks in spite of severe censorship. Most reporters were personally committed to the broad political objectives of the Allies. Reporters routinely visited the troops, and had contact with generals for "off the record" briefings. Reporters wrote stories, then censors examined what they wrote. Most reporters self-censored their own writing to avoid delays and necessary rewrites. During the war no photograph or film clip included dead American servicemen.
Newspaper and radio coverage of the war was considered to be the best and fullest the world had ever seen. The press and the military were watchful, but supportive of each other. The military trusted the press with details of military operations, and there were very few reported examples of military secrets being released by correspondents.
The film industry that had begun in the last decade of the nineteenth century expanded rapidly during the first decades of the twentieth century. Newsreels were viewed in movie theaters. By the late 1930's war films developed many of the conventions still associated with it. Many films made during World War II contained stereotypes of Germans, Italians and Japanese. Emerging during the war was the documentary film, including docudrama, which interspersed real film footage with studio-developed dramas.
Student Questions
What roles did the press and media play in World War II?
How did the press serve as a propaganda arm for the government and the military?
What role did communication technology play in World War II?
How did the government and the military enforce censorship and other restrictions on the press?
What might have happened if the press had published photos of the carnage that occurred during
World War II?
Return to Activity 6.
Go to the Contents page for International Conflict and the Media.
Go to the Bibliography.