Activity 6, The Press and the Military
Background
By far, the most frequently reported international events during the last two decades of the nineteenth century were those related to Cuba. Cuba had been a Spanish colony since the early Spanish explorers visited the island during the early 16th century. Although most other Spanish colonies had gained their independence during the nineteenth century, Spain held on to Cuba. During the latter part of the nineteenth century, Cubans began a series of unsuccessful insurrections to gain independence from Spain. In March 1895, another revolt arose. From the beginning of the insurrection, American newspapers were particularly interested in covering events. There were fewer than twenty days in which the Cuban revolt did not appear in one of the New York newspapers from its inception until war broke out between the United States and Spain in 1898.
The reasons for this extensive coverage in the Cuban insurrection were several fold. First, there was extreme competition among newspapers in New York, particularly between the World, the Journal, Sun, and Herald. Second, in order to boost circulation, several stories were manufactured, particularly by the Journal. Finally, there was a concerted attempt by Cuban emigres to influence American public opinion in favor of the revolution.
In 1896, the Spanish colonial authorities, while attempting to put down the revolt, herded Cubans into concentration camps near Spanish military bases. Epidemics and hunger swept through the island, and more than 100,000 Cubans were estimated to have died in these camps. American newspapers played up these repressive measures. Due to exaggerated claims, newspapers reported that more than 400,000 Cubans had died. Newspapers also published photographs that were purportedly taken at these camps. Some were fakes. While on a visit to Havana, the United States battleship Maine mysteriously blew up. Efforts were made to ascertain the responsibility for the act, but no examination ever placed the blame upon any party. American newspapers blamed the Spanish authorities and the slogan "Remember the Maine" became a commonly heard rallying cry throughout the subsequent war.
The war ended with the complete defeat of Spain. The United States took possession of Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Cuba. After a few years of occupation, Cuba became independent. The United States military forces suppressed a rebellion in the Philippines, and eventually granted independence in 1946. Puerto Rico remains a Commonwealth of the United States.
The Press in the Spanish-American War
Before the war, William Randolph Hearst, owner of the New York Journal, sent several reporters and photographers to cover the events unfolding in Cuba. Reportedly, one photographer cabled Hearst that everything was quiet in Cuba and that he was returning to the United States. Hearst requested that he stay in Havana, and supposedly cabled: "You furnish the pictures, and I'll furnish the war." Whether or not Hearst actually sent this cable has been a matter of dispute, however, his newspaper covered the insurrection extensively and chanted for American intervention against Spain. When war between Spain and the United States finally broke out in April 1898, several observers dubbed it "Hearst's war."
During the Spanish-American War, improved communications and transportation intensified the problems that had emerged during the Civil War. Newspapers published information about combat plans and ship movements. The U.S. government responded by establishing censorship units at cable offices. Due to the war's brevity, there was no opportunity to resolve outstanding disputes.
The Spanish-American War witnessed the emergence of a new media, film. By the 1890's there was already a fledgling but growing film industry. In 1898 when the tensions increased between the United States and Spain over Cuba, this popular medium inflamed public opinion during the period of national debate. The new "flickers," appearing at carnivals and nickelodeons, were crude films that lasted only a few minutes. These films provided both information about the war and encouraged an emotional outpouring of "war fever."
Film makers went to great lengths to find, or manufacture, film footage that catered to the popular war interest. After the battleship Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor, one movie exhibitor found footage of other American battleships at sea or anchor, and simply re-labeled one as the Maine. Another took their photographic equipment to Cuba and photographed the sunken hull of the Maine, and another filmed the "Burial of Maine Victims." After the war broke out, film makers faked footage of naval battles by using miniature ships in a water tank.
Participants engaged in combat used the press to their own advantage. Theodore Roosevelt, for instance, had his "Rough Riders" filmed while training at an army base near Tampa. Roosevelt invited prominent journalists to observe his assault on San Juan Hill. These activities advanced his presidential career at the turn of the century.
Student Questions
How did technological advances change the relationship between reporters and the military?
Did the press cause the Spanish-American War?
Was the press censored during this war?
Return to Activity 6.
Go to the Contents page for International Conflict and the Media.
Go to the Bibliography.