Activity 11, The Political Context
By far the most important continuing problem in the Middle East during the last half century has been the tension between Israel and its Arab neighbors. The first Arab-Israeli war in 1948 ended in a cease fire, but not peace. Additional wars erupted between Israel and Arab countries in 1955, 1967 and 1973. During the 1967 war, Israel occupied the Gaza strip, the West Bank, and Egypt's Sinai desert. During the 1973 war, Arab nations refused to sell oil to Western nations. This crisis caused oil prices to explode. In the United States, cars waited in long lines to acquire gas when it was available.
The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat, was an umbrella organization for various Palestinian groups created by the Arab League in 1964. After the 1967 war the PLO began confronting Israel through terrorism and armed struggle directly against Israel. Many Palestinian refugees fled to Jordan and Lebanon.
Jordan, like most non-oil producing countries in the Middle East, was in deep economic trouble. In Jordan, the PLO tried to take control of the Jordanian government. King Hussein of Jordan suppressed the Palestinians and expelled the PLO in September 1970. The PLO established its headquarters in Lebanon, and continued to launch raids against Israel.
Lebanon had received its independence from France in 1946. For two decades Lebanon functioned as a democracy with a Constitutional balance between Christians and Moslems. During the 1960's the balance disintegrated. In 1975, a Civil War erupted, with numerous factions of Christians, Moslems, Palestinians and Druse vying for power. In 1990, a peace settlement was reached which called upon Syria to maintain a major military force in Lebanon.
In 1979, Egypt and Israel began negotiations to resolve their differences under the sponsorship of President Jimmy Carter at Camp David in the United States. These negotiations led to the Israeli withdrawal from the Sinai and the exchange of Ambassadors between the two nations. Due to this peace arrangement, Egypt was isolated from the Arab world. Militant Arab nations, such as Syria and Iraq, broke relations with Egypt, and Egypt was removed from membership in the Arab League, an organization promoting unity among Arab countries.
In 1982 Israeli forces invaded Lebanon with the intent of ousting the PLO, which had used bases in the southern Lebanon to attack Israeli settlements in northern Israel. Finding itself in a quagmire, Israel gradually disengaged from Lebanon.
The Israeli disengagement led to the decision by President Ronald Reagan to send American Marines into Beirut in 1983 with tragic results. The Marines left the following year after an Arab suicide bomber blew up the Marine barracks. This failure led to a reappraisal within the Reagan Administration regarding the future use of American troops. In 1984, Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger concluded that American military force should not be used unless: it was vital to America's national interest; the commitment was made to win the conflict; there were clearly defined military objectives; the military had the full support of the American people; and military conflict should be only as the last resort.
Another important factor that influenced events in the Middle East was the fall of European communism. Communist regimes in eastern and central Europe began falling in 1989, along with the Berlin Wall. The end of the Cold War meant a relaxation of tensions in Europe, and a spirit of cooperation between the West and the Soviet Union developed. For the Middle East, this change in Europe had two major effects. First, the decline of the Soviet Union meant the weakening of influence upon the militant Arab nations, who had received large amounts of Soviet arms and aid. This weakening of influence of the militant Arab states in turn meant the reincorporation of Egypt into the mainstream politics. Egypt was readmitted to the Arab League, and Syria reestablished full diplomatic relations with Egypt.
The second effect of the fall of communism was the relaxation of the Soviet Union's policy of restricting Jewish immigration to Israel. A mass exodus of Soviet Jews ensued, reaching the staggering total of more than 10,000 per month. The resulting demographic shift greatly strengthens Israel's long-term strategic position in the Middle East. Israel increased Jewish immigration to the occupied Arab areas in Gaza and the West Bank.
Palestinians in the West Bank campaigned against the Israeli occupation. They launched an uprising, or intifada, in December 1987. King Hussein of Jordan feared that Israel might force the Palestinians living in the West Bank to flee to Jordan, thus making room for the new Soviet immigrants who were pouring into Israel. Iraqi President Saddam Hussein took advantage of these concerns and gathered Arab leaders to address these issues. This conference forged closer ties between Iraq, Jordan and the leaders of the PLO, but the Arab world was deeply divided and no action was taken.
Student Questions
What are some of the recent trends in the Middle East?
Why would events in Europe effect events in the Middle East?
What would you predict for the future of the Middle East based upon these recent events?
Return to Activity 11.
Go to the Contents page for International Conflict and the Media.
Go to the Bibliography.